CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents some theories that are related to this study. The discussion covers language, culture, society, register, style, discourse analysis, conversational analysis, text and context, SPEAKING Model of Dell Hymes, genre, types of genre and the organization of conversation. The detailed explanation is described in the following sub-headings.
2.1 Language, Society, Culture, Register and Style
The discussions will elaborate the relation among language, society, culture, register and style. In general language is tool of communication which has complex meaning. Boey (1982) stated that language is arbitrary. It means that the language we produce there is not relation with the objects in their meaning.
According to Wardhaugh (2002), language is what the members of particulars society speak. He also stated that almost any society can take many different forms so that we are as the researchers have to choose one of them for discussion. These mean that sometimes too a society may be bilingual. Therefore, he defined that the language and society are not independent.
Chaika (1982) argues language is used to reveal or conceal our personal identity, our character, and our background, often wholly unconscious that we are doing so. Furthermore, he stated if we are speaking we are not paying attention to what we should say, but also how we say it.
Yule (1985) defined language is a complex system of meaningful vocal symbols it means that language is consisting of vocal or sound that have meaning. The other hand, Lim Kiat Boey (1975) and Soeparno (2002) stated that language is arbitrary. These mean that there is no the relation between a word its meaning.
Culture is well is known as complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as member of society (Hymes, 1964, as cited in Sholichatun: 2005)
Society is any group of people who are drawn together for certain purpose or purposes (Wardhaugh : 2002 p, 1). In other hand, Patz (1992) defines culture is the sense in which it is used by cultural anthropologists. The anthropologists argued that everybody has cultures. In addition, Goodenough (1957, as cited in Patz, !992) stated that culture is socially acquired knowledge.
Wardaugh (2002 p, 50) affirmed that register is set of language items associated with discrete occupational or social group, such as, surgeons, airline pilot, bank managers, sales clerks, jazz fans, and so forth will employ different register. As Ferguson (1994, p. 20 as cited in Wardaugh, 2002, p. 50) says people participating in recurrent communication situation tend to develop similar vocabularies, similar features of intonation, and characteristic bits of syntax and phonology that they use in these situation. This kind of variety is register.
Alan Davies Catherine Elder (2004) says that register is the means whereby contextual predictability (in terms of field, tenor, and mode) is reflected in the lexicon-grammar. Furthermore, he stated that register a variety of language (like a dialect).
Crystal (1991, p. 295) defines register as "a variety of language defined according to its use in social situations, e.g. a register of scientific, religious, formal English."
Lee (2001) the word style is used in the way most other people use register: to refer to particular ways of using language in particular contexts. Style is meant a consistent occurrence in the text of certain items and structures, or types of items and structures, among those offered by the language as a whole (Malmkjær: 2006). In addition, Rogers (2004) style is the domain closest to identity or ways of being or how people produce the language and it is considered as grammar that signify how people drawn into and composed social structure.
After discussing all of the definitions of language, society, culture, register and style, the researcher can take the conclusion that all of them cannot be separated each others for language cannot develop without society, culture, register and style. Other wise, language cannot function without them. So do the society, culture, register and style.
2.2 Discourse and Conversational Analysis
2.2.1 Discourse Analysis
The word “discourse” is derived from Latin’s word “discursus” which has broad meanings firstly, the word discourse was introduced by (Longacre, 1979 as cited in Rahardjo, 2002) he stated that discourse happened between speakers and listeners or writers and readers. In our daily life, however, Raharjo (2002) stated that we are very familiar to hear people talk about discourse. Discourse is a term that is used not only in linguistics but also it is used in several disciplines like sociology, psychology, medical science, politics, and excreta. In linguistics, Rahardjo (2007) define discourse as a verbal language sequence that is broader than a sentence. Although discourse has a number of meanings, just like language in linguistics, it has the specific meanings in which it is always more than a sentence because most of discourse have an ideology and a purpose.
Kress (1985, as sited in Malkajaer, 2006 ) stated that discourse is in an effort to understand the social nature of meanings:
Discourses are systematically-organized sets of statements which give expression to the meanings and values of an institution. Beyond that, the define, describe and delimit what it is possible to say and not possible to say… with respect to the area of concern of that institution, whether marginally or centrally.
(Kress, 1985b, pp. 6–7)
Discourse has a large domain which attaches to other disciplines such as political, philosophical and sociological domains. Discourse itself has number meanings that are more complicated in term of the existence of discourse in a number of areas of study. Because people use it not only for communication but also to influence other people to support their intention through ideological purpose, discourse constrains the emergence of specific studies to typically concern with.
Brown and Yule (1989) assert that the analysis of discourse is necessarily the analysis of language in use. Discourse Analysis has its own area in linguistics as interdisciplinary studies that attaches to other disciplines. Study on, therefore, discourse can not only be conducted through linguistics but it can be analyzed from others disciplines. Discourse Analyst is committed to the investigation of the relationships between forms and functions. Renkema (1993) confirmed that Discourse Studies is the discipline devoted to the investigation of the relationship between forms and functions in verbal communication. It is clear enough that indeed the area of Discourse Analysis focuses on the language in use.
The analysis of discourse covers spoken and written communication of what the speakers and writers have produced, and of what the hearers and readers think of and interpret, too. In written discourse, there are two main domains that cannot be ignored by discourse analysts namely Cohesion and Coherence. Ibrahim (1998, as cited in Rahardjo 2002) revealed that Cohesion is concerned with Semantic areas of study which refers to the relationship of meanings in texts.
Discourse Analysis, further, can be used to investigate words, sentences, expressions or meanings beyond people’s expressions. Burke claimed that in communication people are used to choose words and the arrangement of sentences. Therefore, what words they produce, what symbols they give, and intonation is not merely as the way of individual expression or communication but intentionally people commit it for certain purpose.
Therefore, discourse analysis, in this research, is concerned with the study of written discourse which is intended to give crystal understanding to the interviewer or the audiences in interviewing Hillary, to convince that Hillary’s answer is true and valid. .
2.2.2 Conversational Analysis
The basic definition of conversational analysis is the study of talk (Hutchby and Wooffitt 1998, p.13). Furthermore, they argue conversational analysis is the systematic analysis of talk produced in everyday situation of human interaction, for example, this phenomenon always happens in talk-in-interaction.
Three sociologists (Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson, as cited in Malcolm Couthard, 1988) see the conversational analysis as s first step towards achieving a naturalistic observational discipline to deal with detail of social interaction in rigorous, empirical and formal way.
Conversation analysis is one of the key methodological approaches to the study of verbal interaction (Wooffitt: 2005,p.1). In addition, he argued that conversation analysis is divided into three categories. First, conversation analysis investigates talk as action; therefore, it offers a way to see how social order is produced through communicative actions in concert. Second, conversation analysis is centrally concerned to identify participants’ tacit understanding of the on-going interaction. Third, conversation analytic studies have repeatedly shown that it is necessary to attend to the detail of the organization of talk because it is demonstrably consequential to the way participants understand the emergent trajectory of interaction.
Conversational analysis is study how to analyze the verbal conversation that happens naturally. Hereby, this research investigates how the interlocutors catch the points from the speakers tacitly.
2.3 Text and Context
2.3.1 Text
A text can be defined as an actual use of language, as distinct from sentence which is an abstract unit of linguistic analysis (Widdoson: 2008, p. 4). Also he argued text is a purposeful use of language without necessarily being able to interpret just what is meant by it.
Brown and Yule (1989) argue that text is the verbal record of communicative event. On the other hand, Finegan (2004 p, 584) stated that text is a unitary stretch of expression created in real -word social situation. It is usually but not always longer than a sentence,. Commonly, it is used in written than in spoken or signed expression.
One of the first questions discourse analysts ask is what is happening in this stretch of talk, who the participants are, where they are, and why they are there. In other words, discourse analysts are quintessentially concerned with the context of language use (Aronoff & Miller: 2002).
2.3.2 Context
Base on speech act theory and pragmatic view context primarily as “knowledge. Though, a key part of such knowledge is “knowledge of situation”, situation is largely unanalyzed by these approaches (Deborah Schiffrin, 2004). He also stated that accordance with interactional sociolinguistics and the ethnography of communication view context as knowledge.
Wooffitt (2002, p.63) suggested that context is dealing with our assumption about where and when we are speaking also we have to consider our topic, participants, setting and culture. Further he stated that when we are speaking then we always pay attention to context (who, whom, when and where we are speaking), our communication will be running well also we can avoid the misunderstanding and offending somebody else.
Finegan (2004) defined that the context is typically refers to those aspects of situation (meaning and expression) that affect the expression and enable an interpretation of the context.
2.4 SPEAKING Model of Dell Hymes
Dell Hymes is one of the most linguists. He affirmed that speech must consist of eight components that abbreviated in the word “SPEAKING”. He, also, is the first linguist who introduced the genre. If we sort the word “SPEAKNG” it will be as follows
Setting and Scene
Setting refers to the time and place of a speech act occur and, in general, setting refer to the physical circumstances. For instance, the living room in the grandparents' home might be a setting for a family story. The other hand, scene refers to the situation of the place and time of speech act or we can call it as "psychological setting" or "cultural definition" of a scene. Also it is including characteristics such as range of formality and sense of play or seriousness. For instance, the family story may be told at a reunion celebrating the grandparents' anniversary. At times, the family would be festive and playful; at other times, serious and commemorative.
Participants
Participants are speakers and audiences. Linguists will make distinctions within these categories; for example, the audience can be distinguished as addressees and other hearers. At the family reunion, an aunt might tell a story to the young female relatives, but males, although not addressed, might also hear the narrative.
Ends
Hymes stated when people are speaking they must bring purposes, goals, and outcomes. For example, when aunt tells a story about the grandmother, of course she brings aims perhaps she is going to entertain the audience, teach the young women, and honor the grandmother.
Act Sequence
Form and order of the event. The aunt's story might begin as a response to a toast to the grandmother. The story's plot and development would have a sequence structured by the aunt. Possibly there would be a collaborative interruption during the telling. Finally, the group might applaud the tale and move onto another subject or activity.
Key
Clues that establish the "tone, manner, or spirit" of the speech act. The aunt might imitate the grandmother's voice and gestures in a playful way, or she might address the group in a serious voice emphasizing the sincerity and respect of the praise the story expresses.
Instrumentalities
Forms and styles of speech. The aunt might speak in a casual register with many dialect features or might use a more formal register and careful grammatically "standard" forms.
Norms
Social rules governing the event and the participants' actions and reaction. In a playful story by the aunt, the norms might allow many audience interruptions and collaboration, or possibly those interruptions might be limited to participation by older females. A serious, formal story by the aunt might call for attention to her and no interruptions as norms.
Genre
The kind of speech act or event; for the example used here, the kind of story. The aunt might tell a character anecdote about the grandmother for entertainment, or an exemplum as moral instruction. Different disciplines develop terms for kinds of speech acts, and speech communities sometimes have their own terms for types.
2.5 Genre
The term of genre is used by Fairlough (1997, as cited in Eriyanto, 2001 p 312) is one of the convention which has correlation with our activities it means that we have to consider the situation before communicating with other, for instance if we buy something in traditional market, our communication will be different with we buy something in supermarket, also the language used by ordinary people it will be different from the educated people. On the other hand, Grundy (2000, p 169) argues the genre is a way of making the points of our speaking.
Most approaches to discourse explicitly or implicitly address the question of genre. Genre, as already noted, is one of the items in Hymes’ SPEAKING grid for the analysis of speech events. In conversation analysis, as Eggins and Slade (1997, p. 30 as cited in Alan Davies Caterina Elder, 2004) note, though the focus has tended to be on micro-structural issues rather than on the larger macro-structures of conversation, there is some attention to “global text structure” – i.e., in effect, to genre. Birmingham school discourse analysis, though not normally referred to as genre analysis, in fact is so; Sinclair and Coulthard’s (1975) original account of classroom discourse in terms of social purposes, macro-structure, lexico-grammatical choice, etc. is a notable example
Genre is a part of discourse analysis. It is dealing with a use of language which conforms to certain schematic and textual convention, as agreed by particular discourse community (Widdowson, 2007). Also he stated that genre can be attached by meeting, interview, cross-examination, debate and so forth. In other hand, Gleason and Ratner (1998) argued genre is types of discourse and text which have many forms and also they have many ways to classify each form.
Ranoff and Miller (2002) proposed genre is the forms of linguistic patterning in terms of which typical communicative tasks, like reports, explanations, descriptions, narratives, classifications, and so forth, are carried out within particular social languages. Further more they stated that genre is Genre is a face to-face interview.
Alan Davies Catherine Elder (2004) defines a genre is a type of speech event. Neither can be described simply on the basis of single instances analyzed qualitatively. Furthermore he stated genre is the set of purpose-determined conventions in accordance with which the discourse proceeds on a particular occasion. These include the staged patterning of the discourse, typical topics, and features of register. (Genre analysis thus subsumes register analysis.)
Genre is viewed as an instance of language use in a conventionalized social setting requiring an appropriate response to a specific set of communicative goals of a disciplinary or social institution, and thus giving rise to stable structural forms by imposing constraints on the use of lexicon-grammatical as well as discoursial resources (Kachru, Kachru & Nelson: 2006).
Biber (1988, pp. 70 & 170; EAGLES, 1996 as cited in David YW Lee 2001) confirmed genre, in this view, is defined as a category assigned on the basis of external criteria such as intended audience, purpose, and activity type. Furthermore Biber (1988, ac cited in Lee, 2001) gave the criteria of genre:
Genre categories are determined on the basis of external criteria relating to the purpose and topic; they are assigned on the basis of use rather than on the basis of form. p. 170)
In addition, Lee (2001) stated genre tends to be associated more with the organization of culture and social purposes around language and is tied more closely to considerations of ideology and power, whereas register is associated with the organization of situation or immediate context. Some of the most elaborated ideas about genre and register can be found within the tradition of systemic functional grammar (Bhatia, Swales 1993, 1990, as cited in David Lee, 2005).
Within the critical discourse framework, Fairclough (2000, p. 14 as cited Kirsten Malmkjær, 2006) defines genre as “a socially ratified way of using language in connection with a particular type of social activity (e.g., interview, narrative, exposition)” The distinction he draws between discourse, style and genre is explained, in relation to political language, in his account of the discourse of New Labour (Fairclough, 2000, p. 14):
Styles (e.g., Tony Blair’s style) are to do with political identities and values; discourses (e.g., the discourse of the “Third Way”) are to do with political representations; and genres are to do with how language figures as a means of government (so the Green Paper constitutes a particular genre, a particular way of using language in governing).
The critical view of genre is that such “ways,” as part of the unequally distributed symbolic capital of society, are empowering to some, oppressive to others.
Meanwhile, talking about genre, it cannot be separated from styles and registers because sometimes they are used interchangeably, mainly they overlap to some degree. David lee (2005, as cited in Crytal and Davi 1969), nevertheless, defines three kinds of these terms. They stated that registers, as "a variety of language defined according to its use in social situations, e.g. a register of scientific, religious, formal English." However, the word style is used in the way most other people use register: to refer to particular ways of using language in particular contexts. These mean that register and style are one term because if we use register, we need style to pronounce it, so does the style. So that, one difference between both are that genre because genre tends to be associated more with the organization of culture and social purposes around language and is tied more closely to considerations of ideology and power, whereas register is associated with the organization of situation or immediate context.
The two terms genre and register are the most confusing, and are often used interchangeably, mainly because they overlap to some degree. One difference between both is that genre tends to be associated more with the organization of culture and social purposes around language (Bhatia, 1993; Swales, 1990), and is tied more closely to considerations of ideology and power, whereas register is associated with the organization of situation or immediate context. Some of the most elaborated ideas about genre and register can be found within the tradition of systemic functional grammar. The following diagram (Martin & Matthiessen, 1991, reproduced in Martin, 1993, p. 132) shows the relation between language and context, as viewed by most practitioners of systemic-functional grammar (David lee: 2001)
Now days, there are several current approaches to genre analysis such as, notably SFL (System-Functional Linguistics), ESP (English for Specific Purposes), new rhetoric, and critical (Hyon, 1996; Hyland, 2002 as cited in Alan Davies Caterina Elder, 2004). However, this research is just going to analyze on genre analysis of SFL, the background of knowledge of the researcher is pure linguistics. We know that ESP approach of genre is for applied linguistic that is language education. Also this research is going to understand the means of language user (Elder, 2004).
Early SFL genre studies were Hasan’s (Halliday & Hasan, 1985and Ventola’s 1987, as cited in Elder, 2004) studies of service encounters. Later work (especially by Martin and his associates, as cited in Elder, 2004) has been on written genres such as, reports, narratives, explanations, especially with the aim of facilitating literacy education in schools
In conclusion, studying genre refers to the way how people use language in certain occasion which will be influenced by the context, topic, and the participants. In addition, people will use the genre because they have their own ideology, purposes and cultures or habits.
2.4.1 Types of Genre
Every speakers and writers have their own types of genre in conducting their speeches and their writing. According to Gleason and Ratner (1993), in general, there are three types of genre that will be used by every single speakers and writers in their speakers or writers. Those are will be explored as follows:
1. Narrative
Narrative, as defined by McCabe (1991, as in Gleason and Ratner, 1993), usually concern real or pretend memories of something that has already happened, it is often largely using past tense. For instance, this conversation happened in Elementary School between teacher and student:
Teacher :Riko, coba ceritakan hal yang paling menarik ketika kamu masih kecil
Riko : ketika saya kecil, saya selalu ngompol dan ketika saya mau tidur saya selalu di temani ibu saya sambil bernyanyi nena bobok).
Narrative, in other hand, tells something that will occur in the future or present. For example: this conversation is done by university Islamic students in language morning between tutors and students:
Tutor : well guys! Our material today is telling story, so I will cal you one by one to tell the story, it can be about your future or what it is being done now.
Student A : I am studying English Letters and Language now in the State Islamic University of Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang. Then, after finishing my study here, I will go on my study at Indonesia University (UI).
Furthermore, narrative often contains a chronologies sequence of events but some narratives contains only a single event or skip around time. Additional explanation, narrative is divided into three types, those are as below!
1.1. Descriptive
It is type of genre that sometimes the speaker or interviewees when they are asked something, they will answer it by describing something from different angle so that the audiences or listeners will feel that the audiences or listeners involve in that situation. For example: this room looks like palace.
1.2. Orientative Information
The speakers or interviewees will give some information to the audiences or the listeners because the speakers or interviewees assume that the audiences or the listeners do not know this information. Also the speakers or interviewees are sure that due to this information, the participants will get new knowledge and also the participants will understand the information briefly and deeply.
For example
The lecturer explains the material to his students
“Well students! Now we are going to study about discourse especially about genre analysis. Genre is studying about how people use language which is influenced by context, ideology and purposes”.
1.3. Evaluation
Every body feels easy in evaluating somebody else for the nature character of human beings are gossip or giving value to others. In other word, the aims of the evaluation are for giving the interlocutors advice in order they will not do it anymore.
For example:
The parents give advice to their child
“Well my beloved little child! Why were you absent this morning? If you are always absent, I am afraid of your future, you will be stupid child and you will not have good job”.
In additional information, Keraf (2004) argued that narrative discourse is divided into four categories.
1.4. Autobiography and Biography
The definitions of autobiography and biography are the same. The different between both are located in the narrator. If the narrators tell about his or her experiences so this story is called as autobiography. In contras, if the narrators tell about other persons’ experiences so these acts are called as Biography. Nevertheless, both of them have the same function that is exploring the interesting story of life. Also the formula that should be developed in this story is about life. The aims of these acts are want to show the dramatic event and try to take knowledge. In addition, this discourse is authentic or fact.
1.5. Anecdote and Incident
Anecdote is kind of discourse which aims to show the interesting or strange character of people or animals. The interesting discourse anecdote does not occur on the way how people present his or her speeches but it occurs on ideas or the messages that the speakers want to be showed. Usually, the anecdote appears before the discourse finishes.
Incident is telling events or something happened in the past. The interesting incident is located on the special characters of people or animals that are showed the events themselves. What is told in this discourse, usually, is very interesting. Thus are for incidents themselves, and not for interpretation. Though, this is small incidents, it can be the audiences or listeners to feel tight. For example, this story is about accident, and then there are SAR teams that are going to evacuate the victims also about the police men that want to break into the robbers.
1.6. Sketch
Sketch is kind of short discourse. In this item, the speakers or writes, usually, will serve something that is very important. It means that the speakers or writers will not tell it in detail.
In short, narratives serve many important functions (McCabe, 1996, as cited in Gleason and Ratner, 1993)
1. Narratives enable people to make sense of their experiences in ways that feel culturally satisfying. For example, if woman has a car accident, chances are the first time she talk about it, she be fairly incoherent. After talking about the experience wit several supportive friends who ask questions and make some inferences about what must have happened, her account will be much more coherent, reflecting the fact she has now made sense of the experience.
2. Narratives present the narrator in particular light (for example, as hero or victim).
3. Narratives make past event present and abstract concepts vivid. Many journalists, historians, psychologists, and others have interviewed victims of the Holocaust in order to make that historical event present and vivid to younger individuals.
4. Narratives forge relationships. In fact, one index of your intimacy with another is amount and kind of narrative you know about that person’s life.
2. Expository/Explanatory
Expository or explanatory is one of the genres that has function to explain, expose, make plan in detail and give instruction to the people in doing something so that by thus, the listeners or the readers will get crystal understanding and finally the listeners or readers will be able to do or make something well. Gleason and Ratner (1993), however, distinguished between the expository and explanatory. They defined expository as the discourse that transmits such thinking and they named as expository discourse. Further more, they called expository discourse is argumentative because it deals with the ideas and concept in which are proven with the valid data and example. So the listeners or reader feel sure that this discourse is right. In other hand, Beals and Snow (1994, as cited in Gleason and Ratner, 1993) stated that explanatory deals with how people to explain something. Also they termed the explanatory as explanatory talk.
Although expository discourse or explanatory talk is conceptually distinct from narrative, in the real conversation investigated the two genres were found to overlap to such extent that the researcher argued that they draw on similar underlying skills.
The characteristics of expository or explanatory as follows!
1. Intention behind action: “what is the spoon for?
2. Request or commands: I said, stop the banging. That isn’t to be played with. It’s to eat with.”
3. Questions or statement: I told you you should have stuck with the leftover. They’re tastier than they were yesterday, huh?”
4. Internal states: “(I’m not afraid to dunk) because I’m a big girl.”
5. Causal explanation: “Sure have a big belly ache….I think I ate, had too much.”
6. Definition and description: “(Your highness means) somebody who’s really important-a queen and princess, or something.”
7. Evidential explanations: “Sally had gym today…because I saw her coming out of gym.”
8. Procedural explanation: “you add a little water and you shake it up. That’s how you get it to go when it’s all stuck to the sides.”
9. Explanation of the consequences of one’s actions: “I said if you wanted to stay in kitchen you had to remain quiet.”
3. Humor
Humor or language play might well be considered a third genre. As with explanation and narrative, humor is conceptually distinct but in reality often overlaps with explanation and narrative because if we use humor or language play, it will be used in narrative and explanation.
2.4.2 The Organization of Conversation
It looks strange that casual conversation should be organized by rules because in most speech events or genres are more paid attention to context than to organization. Due to that the conversation applies naturally or pays attention more to the content, the speakers should take the organization of conversation in order they know when they should speak, end and answer the question (Finegan :2004 p, 306-316). So this research writes how to make conversation run smoothly and well as follows:
2.4.2.1 Turn Taking and Pausing
Participant must tacitly agree on who should speak when. Normally the speakers take turns at holding the floor without overt negotiation. The useful way to uncover the convention of turn taking is to observe what happens when they break down. Of course, when participant fails to take the floor, though he or she knows that it is his or her turn, other speaker usually pause, and then someone else begins speaking. In this example, Hanief as my roommate repeats his question, assuming that Sofyan as my roommate too does not hear or understand it. It occurred when they made coffee.
Hanief : have you already made coffee?
(pause)
Hanief : have you already made coffee?
Sofyan : no, I haven’t, because I should finish my task.
Turn-taking conventions are also violated when two people attempt to speak simultaneously. In the next example, the beginning and end of the overlap are marked with brackets
Speaker 1: after John’s party we went to Ed’s house
Speaker 2: so you-so you-you-
[ ]
Speaker 3: what-what-time did you get there?
When such competition arises in casual conversation, speaker may either quickly relinquish the floor or turn up the volume and continue speaking. Both silence and simultaneous speaking are serious problems in conversation, and the turn-taking norms are designed to minimize them.
Different cultures have different degrees of tolerance for silence between turns, overlap in speaking, and competition among speakers. In the Inuit and other Native American cultures, for example, people sit comfortably together in silence. At the other extreme, in French and Argentina cultures have several conversationalists often talk simultaneously and interrupt each other more frequently than Americans typically feel comfortable doing.
People from all cultures, however, appear to regulate turn taking in conversation in essentially similar ways: Speaker signal when they wish to end their turn, either selecting the next speaker or leaving the choice open; the next speaker takes the floor by beginning to talk.
2.4.2.1.1 Turn-Taking Signal
Usually the speakers signal that their turn is about to end with verbal and non-verbal cues. As turns commonly end in complete sentence, the completion of a sentence may signal the end of a turn. A sentence ending in a tag question (don’t you?, are you?) explicitly invites an interlocutors to take the floor.
Speaker A: today is windy, isn’t it?
Speaker B: sure is!
The end of a turn may also be signaled sharply raising or lowering pitch of your voice, or by drawling the last syllable of the final word of the turn. In very informal conversations, one common cue is the phrases or something.
Speaker A: so he was behaving as if he’d been hit by truck, or something.
Speaker B: really?
Other expression that can signal the completion of turn are y' know, kinda, I don't know (or I dunna), and trailing uhm. As with y' know, some of these can also function within a turn for the speaker to keep the floor while thinking about what to say next. Another way to signal the completion of turn is to pause and make to attempt to speak again.
Daniel: I really don't t think he should've said that at the meeting, particularly in front of the whole committee. It really was pretty insensitive
{pause}
David: Yeah, I agree
Of course, speakers often have to pause in the middle of a turn to think about to say next, to emphasize a point, or to catch a breath. To signal that a speaker has finished a turn, the pause must be long enough, but "long enough" differs from culture to culture.
Nonverbal as well as verbal signal can indicate the end of turn. Although in speaking the principal role of gestures is to support and stress what we say, continuing our hand gestures lets our interlocutors know what we have more to say. Once we put our hands to rest, our fellow conversationalists may infer that we are yielding the floor.
In a more subtle vein, eye gaze can help control floor holding and turn taking. In mainstream American society, speakers do not ordinarily stare interlocutors, instead, their gaze goes back and forth between their listener and another point in space, alternating quickly and almost imperceptibly. But because listeners, on the other hand, usually fix their gaze on the speakers, speaker reaching the end of a turn can simply return his/her gaze to an interlocutor and thereby signal his/her own turn to listen and interlocutor's to speak.
2.4.2.1.2 Getting the Floor
In multiparty conversations, the speaker holding the floor can select who will speak next, or the next speaker can select him/her self. In the first instance, the floor holder may signal the choice by addressing the next speaker by name (what are you going to do now, Helen?) or by turning toward the selected next speaker. If the floor holder does not select the next speaker, anyone may take the floor, often by beginning the turn at an accelerated pace so as to block other potential claims for the floor.
When the floor holder does not select the next speaker, competition can arise, as in the following example, in which overlaps are indicated with square brackets.
Speaker 1 : who came to Jake's party Saturday night?
[pause]
Speaker 2 : Todd to-
[ ]
Speaker 3 : I don't kn-
[pause]
Speaker 2 : Todd told me-
[ ]
Speaker 3 : I don't know who's-
[short pause]
Speaker 2 : [to speaker 3] go ahead!
Speaker 3 : I don't know who came there, but I know it'll be pretty crowded.
Speaker 2 : yeah, that's what I was gonna say.
Todd told me a lot of people would be there.
Friendly participants strive to resolve such competition quickly and smoothly.
Social inequality between conversationalists (boss and employee, parent and child, doctor and patient) is often reflected in how often and when participants claims the floor. In American work settings, superiors commonly initiate conversations by asking question and letting subordinates report. Thus subordinates hold the floor for longer periods of time than superiors; subordinates perform while superiors act as spectators. In some cultures, superiors talk while subordinates listen.
2.4.2.2 Adjacency Pairs
According to Widdowson (2007 p, 36), adjacency pairs are a pair of utterances in conversation of which the conversational response to the first or the routine of conversation. For example, it happens in the question and answer.
One useful mechanism in the covert organization of conversation is that certain turns have specific turns which associate among them. Question request information take answer. The reply to a greeting is usually also a greeting, to an invitation an acceptance or refusal, and so on. Certain sequences of turns go together, as these adjacency pairs.
Request for Information and Providing Information
In this case the speaker asks information and provides it
Adam : where's the milk I bought this morning?
Joko : on the table in the kitchen.
Invitation and Acceptance
Dayat : I'm having friends to dinner Saturday, and I'd really like you to come.
Sholeh : sure
Assessment and Disagreement
Aby : I don't think Isro' would pay such dirty trick on you
Nia : well, you obviously don't know Isro' very well.
Another function of adjacency pairs is to comprise two turns, one of which directly follows the other. In question/answer adjacency pair, the question is the first par, the question is the first part, the answer the second part. Here are other examples of adjacency pairs.
Request for Favor and Granting
Guest : can I use your phone?
Host : sure.
Apology and Acceptance
Eli : sorry to bother you this late at night.
Dave: no, that's all right. What can I do for you?
Summons and Acknowledgment
Mark : Bill!
Bill : Yeah?
Adjacency pairs are divided into three kinds, they are:
2.4.2.2.1 Structural Characteristics of Adjacency Pairs
There are three kinds of structural characteristics of adjacency pairs, those are:
1. they are contiguous.
The two parts of an adjacency pairs are contiguous and are uttered by different speakers. A speaker who makes statement before responding to a question that has been asked sounds strange because adjacency pairs are structured to be consecutive : for example
Adam : where's the milk I bought this morning?
Betty : they said on radio the weather would clear up by noon. It's on the counter.
2. they are ordered
The two parts of adjacency pairs are ordered. Except on TV game shows like "Jeoprady" the answer to the question cannot precede the question. Ordinarily, one cannot accept an invitation before it has been offered, and an apology cannot be accepted before it is uttered (except sarcastically).
3. they are matched
The first and second parts of an adjacency pairs must be appropriately must be matched. It means that the question and the answer must be relevant. Appropriate matching odd exchanges such as the following.
Kimi : do you want more coffee?
Sasa : that's all right, you're not bothering me in the least.
2.4.2.2.1 Insertion Sequences
When the listener answers the speaker's question, sometimes they ignore the contiguous pattern or they are violated the matching statement. As like the example below!
Ginanjar : where is the book that I bought this morning
Ikhsan : the novel book?
Ginanjar : yeah.
Ikhsan : on your bed.
.
2.6 Bibliography of Hillary Clinton
Hillary Rodham Clinton was born in Chicago, Illinois, 26th October 1947. She lived with Methodist family in Park Ridge, Illinois. Her father is Hugh Ellsworth Rodham as conservative. Her mother is Dorothy Emma Howell Rodham as motherhood. Hillary has two brothers Hugh and Toni. When Hillary Clinton was 61 year olds she was junior senator of New York, she started his job at 3 January 2001. She was getting married at 1975 with former of the forty second American president Bill Clinton. She was as a mother of country since 1993 till 2001. Before that, she was a lawyer. At 22 January 2009 Hillary Clinton was declared as Foreign Ministry of America.
2.7 Previous Study
There are some researchers that have already researched similar field with this research, but having different object discussion. Those are first, Siti Nurcahyati (2008) focused on “Implementing Process Genre to Improve the Writing Skill of the first year Student of MTsN Kebumen 1” she was Graduate Program in English Language Education. Her research used Collaborative Classroom Action Research. The result of her research is using the process and genre approach in teaching writing can improve the students’ writing skill. The improvement is indicated by the increase of the students’ average scores.
Second, Benedict Lin (2006) “Genre-Based Teaching and Vygotskian Principle in EFL: The Case of a University Writing Course”. This aims of this research is want to illustrate how and why such an approach may be extended to EFL teaching. Principles based on the learning theories of Lev Vygotsky. So based on the purposes of this research, the researcher has already had finding that the place of functional view of language is grammar.
Davin YW Lee (2005) is from Lancaster University, UK. He investigated genres, registers, text types, domains, and styles: clarifying the concepts and investigating a path through the BNC Jungle. It is known that spreadsheet/database (the “BNC Index”) containing genre labels and other types of information about the BNC texts will then be described and its usefulness.
Based on the previous studies above, the researcher will focus on genre of discourse approach. Because the function genre itself is want to know how language used
Other wise, Fairclough (2000, p. 14 as cited Kirsten Malmkjær, 2006) gives a little different definition among genre, discourse analysis and stylistics. He defines genre as “a socially ratified way of using language in connection with a particular type of social activity (e.g., interview, narrative, exposition)” The distinction he draws between discourse, style and genre is explained, in relation to political language, in his account of the discourse of New Labour
Styles (e.g., Tony Blair’s style) are to do with political identities and values; discourses (e.g., the discourse of the “Third Way”) are to do with political representations; and genres are to do with how language figures as a means of government (so the Green Paper constitutes a particular genre, a particular way of using language in governing).
